The significance of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Essay Example for Free

The significance of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Essay The significance of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The class action Brown v. Board of Education is recognized as one of the greatest decision in the twentieth century by the Supreme Court. This court held unanimously that racial discrimination of kids in public schools desecrated the Equal protection clause in the constitution. Even though the decision was not successful in United States in completely desegregating public education, it incited the civil rights movement which was emerging into a popular revolution and also succeeded in putting constitution on the side of the racial equality. Many regions of United States had numerous segregated schools in 1954 and this was made legal in plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 where it was held that isolated public facilities were constitutional provided that white and black facilities were â€Å"equal† to each other. But, by mid-twentieth century the civil rights groups established political and legal challenges to racial discrimination. In early 1950’s some class lawsuits were initiated as a way of seeking court orders to oblige school districts to allow black students to attend white public schools. Brown v. Board of education case was one of the class actions which were initiated against the Topeka. In this case Brown argued that Topeka’s racial discrimination violated the clause of equal protection of United States constitution. This decision by the Supreme Court declared discrimination in the educational facilities was unconstitutional. Supreme Court through this decision ended the notion that â€Å"separa te† could be termed as being â€Å"equal† (Retrieved May 5, 2014, from http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/rights/landmark_brown.html). How did the Tet Offensive change American public opinion about the war in Vietnam?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Tet offensive which was televised in the United States nightly surprised a lot of Americans who had the idea previously of United States easily taking care of the enemy. United States forces pushed the Vietnamese forces back where they eventually caused huge casualties on them however the effect of fighting on United States public opinion was very huge(Retrieved May 6, 2014, from http://www.cliffsnotes.com/cliffsnotes/history/how-did-the-tet-offensive-affect-public-opinion-about-the-vietnam-war). Briefly describe the factors that brought an end to the Cold War.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The cold war came to an end since a reformist faction of the communist party came to power in the USSR with Andropov, and then again with Gorbachev, since the old-guard, and just plain old, soviet leaders kept dying. Gorbachev from a younger generation had a much more critical attitude towards the UUSR and was much more educated, intelligent, worldly and open-minded than any other previous leader who is more than Reagan too. There was, however, one other group responsible for the end of the cold war: the individuals of the USSR and Eastern Europe who protests and organized at great personal risks. Their protests and Gorbachev’s acceptance of their roles brought about the end of the cold war not United States arms deployment which may have delayed the whole process (Retrieved May 6, 2014, from http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_events_started_and_ended_the_Cold_War?#slide=28). Briefly describe the reason the Clinton administration embraced NAFTA and the WTO and why the WTO was such a controversial organization.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Clinton’s administration was aimed at curbing international and domestic terrorism. Clinton administration efforts were aimed at rewarding those who worked. WTO is a basic international body which is aimed at assisting in the free trade. Controversy has faced WTO where it has been hijacked through county interests therefore worsening the lot of poor, intense criticism and inviting protest (Retrieved May 6, 2014, from http://www.globalissues.org/article/42/the-wto-and-free-trade). References How did the Tet Offensive affect public opinion about the Vietnam War?. (n.d.). How did the Tet Offensive affect public opinion about the Vietnam War?. Retrieved May 6, 2014, from http://www.cliffsnotes.com/cliffsnotes/history/how-did-the-tet-offensive-affect-public-opinion-about-the-vietnam-war The WTO and Free Trade. (n.d.). Global Issues. Retrieved May 6, 2014, from http://www.globalissues.org/article/42/the-wto-and-free-trade What events started and ended the Cold War?. (n.d.). WikiAnswers. Retrieved May 6, 2014, fromhttp://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_events_started_and_ended_the_Cold_War?#slide=28 supreme court. (n.d.). PBS. Retrieved May 5, 2014, from http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/rights/landmark_brown.html Source document

Effect of Globalisation on Media and Diversity

Effect of Globalisation on Media and Diversity Cahanoo Krishna Globalization encourages the production of culturally diverse media. Discuss. Executive Summary This essay is aimed to seek and to find out whether globalization of the media tends to undermine culturally diversity or does it encourages or benefits it. Existing and present point of view around the relationship/connection between media globalization and diverse cultures are to be examined, considered and evaluated. A study of the diverse purposes performed by global media and surrounded by the perspective of different economies, technological and cultural aspects ( from a cultural perspective ), was done in order to observe to what extent and changes of diverse ways globalization along with media could impact on different cultures. Generally media could influence an essential and active role in upsetting a country’s culture. Whether the globalization of media weakens a country’s national culture or not, it is also to determine by how potential and active a specific country’s national culture is. Amongst the positive side, economic and technological globalization of media do not only refreshes the already existing media strong points, but they also allocate contribution to newer media groups to develop and to mature. At some specific point this essay uses the case of Mauritius and the international facts to demonstrate the cultural homogenization with global media. The national and regional media groups in Mauritius, such as channels from the Mauritius Broadcast Corporation (MBC) like â€Å"Bhojpuri Channel and Sen Creole† develop quickly. Also all the radio stations helps to contribute towards a culture preservance. Thanks to cultural factors, the MBC and Local Radio stations have an edge over foreign competitors and play a very important role in the preservation of our Mauritian cultural identity. (Gov.mu, 2014) Globalization Media in cultural diversity Globalization can be defined as a concrete happening which is caused concurrently by the means of new technologies. It refers to a fast rising and the progress of complex interconnections amongst societies, cultures, organizations globally. The objective of this essay is to consider and to evaluate whether the new circumstances shaped by globalization in the media business imply a risk for the cultural diversity. Most agree that the trend towards becoming international or as one appears to be irreversible, and it is a progression that is inevitable to affect all of us in one way or another. (Sohail, 2014) Globalisation could never occur or exist without the help of media and communication. The media itself performs as a contributor which integrates and connect different cultures nations present around the globe. According to Marshall McLuhan, he describes globalisation as an inter-relations amongst different nations whose purpose is to highlight the ‘electronic media and technology which increasingly integrates the world’, and so those happenings in a certain country can be experienced here and now by other individuals which would make the world more integrated. (McLullan, n.d.) Therefore persons from around the globe are imposed by the cultural colonisation which occur in regards to the actual media and which greatly influences the community and individuals. The combination of diverse cultures from different countries therefore can be integrated, mixed and characterised into different notable forms of media illustration which can practice the media globalisation and mul ticulturalism. (Media Globalisation, n.d.) Through the distribution of the Internet, this has provided the media with additional channel to interrelate itself with the world and is considered to be the most valuable, all-inclusive channels of communication used through the globe. The media globalisation has prominently prolonged the implication of communication throughout numerous media channels such as social networking sites like ‘Twitter, Facebook, blogs and YouTube’ which have developed into a leading platform, populaces from around the world and numerous diverse cultures use these communication networks even though it was at first initiated from the Western community, but still creates positive effects on the less developed countries. (UK Essays, 2014) The media uprising has transformed the whole sphere into a world-wide village. Considering the Satellites TV networks are one of the great tools which contributed to media and the public acknowledge it with love. In Mauritius Satellite TV like ‘Canal Sat, MBC TNT, Orange MYT and DSTV’ are in an increasing reputation and popularity day by day and have taken over traditional forms of entertainment. According to Giandev Moteea, numerous channels form the ‘MCB TNT and Orange MYT’ are bringing up-to-date technical and scientific information at no cost which almost all houses do have them according to statistics. On a simply touch of turning on our television, we can be conscious of the most recent changes around the world instantly. We can watch programmes like the upcoming ‘2014 World Cup, scientific robots at Mars and marvels of engineering in the field of medicine and technology’. This latest verge of technology have delivered us the opportunities to move from a standing stage of lack of knowledge to a modern era of uprising and judgement. Right now we are living in a speedily and constantly changing world, change is around and within us. (Moteea, 2014) The Impact of new technologies According to Teresa M, traditional media as we know will most unlikely continue to have the utmost dominance in the spreading and distribution of cultural ethics. The digitalisation of the media unlocks further angles for the supply of contents which will show a surge in the cultural mixture along the media. However, there is a tendency towards the implantation of pay media which could mean that access to the contents is restricted for a great part of the society, who do not have sufficient resources. This tendency must be counteracted especially by the public ownership media. The convergence and digitalisation of media compromise of new potentials for the increase of cultural diversity, such as the public straight access to subjects, further opportunity for the distribution of subjects and contents. Internet is an exclusively suitable intermediate for the spreading and communication of cultural contents. The Internet can ease the existence in society of cultural associations and oth er groups of similar nature, which will help to develop stimulating cultural accomplishments. (Teresa, 2001) According to So hail Butt, the whole planet has changed and turned into a global community due to the media. The extensive power of media have spread in almost every society and cultural aspects all over the globe. Currently with the development within the field of science and technology, we are internationally interconnected with communication from other countries. The internet has surely brought countries and nations closer, it has functioned to help in the development of the world into global village. (Sohail, 2014) Conclusion The global media mainly the term globalisation concept, permits the different cultures to present a distinct expression to promote and to encourage their awareness and also to provide the general community with proper understanding and awareness of their stories and characteristics. It also permits for the communication of their applicable explanations and observations on diverse issues that are at utmost importance through the preserving of culture and understanding acquirement of the diverse cultural ways, thus this allow them to hold and keep their mixture rather than extinguishing some of the cultures, as others have predicted. (Etec.ctlt.ubc.ca, 2012) The mass media though globalisation contributes in the uplifting and re-establishing of the different cultural preservation of countries. We see that somehow with the help of technology, it can be used to promote and preserve cultural language, customs and the culture itself. Technology like the internet and social networks also al lows for self-representation and conservation of subjective and combined distinctiveness by providing independence and authorisation. Globalisation and the media along with technology have been providing opportunities to redefine shared and combined distinctiveness along with categorising a place for any distinctive cultures present. Globalisation along with the media is here to help the community, governmental and economic systems, combined with a common goal in mind, will no doubt in the present and the future help and enable the evolving authorisation among diverse cultural aspects and peoples throughout the world. Through globalisation and the media, this provide a beneficial impact on person’s, societies or groups advancing to promote and help in the cultural aspects in an international or locally. Globalisation have also complexes the method of education in numerous times over but while doing so, it has help to generate numerous farfetched occasions and opportunities for states and countries to break free with the old-fashioned and traditional ways of cultivating and now work in the direction of producing awareness and understanding in different communities across the globe. Thanks to the media, any individual is perceived as a person who can perform locally but yet reason internationally. To my poin t of view media is encouraged to preserve and maintain the cultural mixture through the assistance of globalisation. (Etec.ctlt.ubc.ca, 2012) References Etec.ctlt.ubc.ca,. (2012). Globalization and its Effect on Cultural Diversity ETEC 510. Retrieved 3 June 2014, from http://etec.ctlt.ubc.ca/510wiki/Globalization_and_its_Effect_on_Cultural_Diversity Gov.mu,. (2014). Republic of Mauritius. Retrieved 2 June 2014, from http://www.gov.mu/English/Pages/default.aspx Mc Lullan, M. (n.d.). Marshall McLuhan, The Global Village. Livinginternet.com. Retrieved 1 June 2014, from http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_mcluhan.htm Media Globalisation. (n.d.). Retrieved 3 June 2014, from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/9446_010773Ch2.pdf Moteea, G. (2014). Giandev Moteea : â€Å"Television goes digital, Mauritius Post cooperates with ICTA and IBA to carry a study on the state of DTT†. Defimedia.info. Retrieved 3 June 2014, from http://www.defimedia.info/news-sunday/interview/item/26827-giandev-moteea%E2%80%9Ctelevision-goes-digital-mauritius-post-cooperates-with-icta-and-iba-to-carry-a-study-on-the-state-of-dtt%E2%80%9D.html Sohail, M. (2014). Globalization, its impact on mass media. The Nation. Retrieved 2 June 2014, from http://www.nation.com.pk/national/24-Feb-2014/globalization-its-impact-on-mass-media Teresa, M. (2001). GLOBALISATION OF THE MEDIA INDUSTRY AND POSSIBLE THREATS TO CULTURAL DIVERSITY. Retrieved 1 June 2014, from UK Essays,. (2014). Is Media Globalisation A Form Of Cultural Imperialism Media Essay. Ukessays.com. Retrieved 2 June 2014, from http://www.ukessays.com/essays/media/is-media-globalisation-a-form-of-cultural-imperialism-media-essay.php

Endosymbiotic Theory in Eukaryotic Cells

Endosymbiotic Theory in Eukaryotic Cells Endosymbiotic theory- the modern, or organelle- containing eukaryotic cell evolved in steps through the stable incorporation of chemoorganotrophic and phototrophic symbionts from the domain Bacteria. The hypothesis of endosymbiosis is at present the most widely accepted theory on the evolution of the eukaryotic cell. This current theory states that the mitochondria and chloroplasts contained within the eukaryotic cell, are there due to the integration of free living bacteria which implement aerobic metabolism, chemoorganotrophic bacteria, and bacteria which implement oxygenic photosynthesis, cyanobacteria. It is thought that symbiosis, in addition to natural selection and mutations, is also a driving force in the evolution of the modern or organelle containing eukaryotic cell. This essay will describe in detail the endosymbiotic theory and its features, discuss the evidence which supports it and then discuss its major opposing theories, the hydrogen hypothesis and the syntrophy hypothesis. Short history of the endosymbiotic theory Many biologists have had a role in what is now known as the endosymbiotic theory. Firstly in 1883, Andreas Schimper proposed that particular organelles evolved from the symbiotic union of two different organisms, (this was while he was studying chloroplast division within green plants and observed a similarity between chloroplasts and free living cyanobacteria.), (Vargas-Parada, 2010). In 1905, Konstantin Merezhkovski devised the term, symbiogenesis , due to his work on lichens leading him to speculate that more complex cells evolved from a symbiotic relationship between less complex ones (2006). Then in the 1920s, Ivan Wallin suggested that organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts began as symbiotic bacteria and that species creation could have occurred through endosymbiosis. Finally, much later in 1967 Lynn Margulis collected various microbiological observations which supported the hypothesis of endosymbiosis. Evolution of the eukaryotic cell The current evidence for the evolution of eukaryotic cells suggests that around 4 billion years ago ancestors of Bacteria and Archea arose. It is thought that in bacteria, around 3.2 billion years ago, phototrophy occurred, with the common ancestor of many bacteria thought to be an anaerobic phototroph. Then around 2.7 billion years ago oxygen-generating cyanobacteria developed, which over time caused an increase in the atmospheric oxygen levels. The atmosphere slowly changed from anoxic to oxic due to this rise in oxygen levels. At some point during this period eukaryotic microorganisms containing organelles evolved and the oxic environment drove their evolution. Main distinguishable features of present day eukaryotes from prokaryotes In many prokaryotic cells their DNA is arranged into a single loop, is circular and unlike eukaryotes, it is not associated with histones and is therefore termed naked. Prokaryotic cells reproduce by the process of binary fission, are mainly unicellular organisms and are usually smaller than eukaryotic cells. In the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell, the DNA is organised into chromosomes, which is surrounded by a membrane. Eukaryotic cells reproduce by the means of mitosis and meiosis, are usually larger than prokaryotic cells and are usually complex and multicellular. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotic cells is that they contain membrane bound organelles, with the most noteworthy being the mitochondria and chloroplasts. The major organelles involved in the endosymbiotic theory The endosymbiotic theory refers to the organelles mitochondria and plastids, (plastids refer to chloroplasts, chromoplasts, and gerontoplasts, to name a few), however mainly focuses on chloroplasts. The major reason for these two organelles being involved in the endosymbiotic theory is because they both contain a small genome. Moreover, both of these organelles contain the operating systems required for cellular functions such as protein synthesis, for example ribosomes and transfer RNA, and also the cellular constituents needed for translation. Mitochondria Mitochondria are the site of respiration and oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotic cells. They are membrane bound organelles, with each cell containing thousands of them. Mitochondria show variations in their morphology, and can be rod-shaped or spherical. They are surrounded by two membranes, an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The outer membrane is made up of protein and lipid and contains channels which allow the diffusion of ions and small organic molecules. The inner membrane is less permeable and is invaginated to form cristae. Oxidative phosphorylation occurs on the inner membrane; with cristae allowing maximum surface area for ATP synthase molecules, which are involved in the synthesis of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), the final step of oxidative phosphorylation. It is for this reason that they are considered to be the power generators of the cell. Mitochondria possess their own DNA which is independent of the cells chromosomal DNA. The mitochondrial genome mainly encodes proteins needed for oxidative phosphorylation and also encodes ribosomal RNAs, (rRNAs), transfer RNAs, (tRNAs) and proteins necessary for protein synthesis. Mitochondria use simplified genetic codes, which seem to have arisen from selection pressure for smaller genomes (Madigan, 2009 p. 351). Even though mitochondria possess their own genome they still require proteins encoded by nuclear genes. Chloroplasts Chloroplasts are membrane bound organelles found in phototrophic eukaryotic cells. These cells are found in plants algae and some protists. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll which is the photosynthetic pigment present within them. Chloroplasts are usually larger than bacterial cells and can differ in size and shape. Chloroplasts again like mitochondria consist of two membranes and inner membrane and an outer membrane. Their outer membrane is permeable and the inner membrane is less permeable. The inner membrane surrounds the stroma, which houses the photosynthetic pigment, chlorophyll and other cellular components needed for the process of photosynthesis in thylakoids. Thylakoids stacked into the structural units, grana. The thylakoid membrane is not permeable to ions and other metabolites, due to the light reactions of photosynthesis needing the proton motive force which is necessary for the synthesis and release of ATP. The stroma of the chloroplast holds large amounts of the enzyme RubisCO, (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylate), which catalyses the Calvin cycle or the dark reactions of photosynthesis. The Calvin cycle converts COà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ into various organic compounds like glucose which are needed by cells. Chloroplasts also contain their own DNA, which is also independent of the cells chromosomal DNA. The identified chloroplast genomes are all circular DNA molecules, with each chloroplast containing several matching copies of the genome (Madigan, 2009 p. 350). Genes contained within the chloroplast encode for proteins required for photosynthesis and autotrophy to occur and also rRNA and tRNA used for the processes of transcription and translation. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have some proteins, which are encoded by nuclear genes and not just by the chloroplast genome. Introduction to the endosymbiotic theory The primary endosymbiotic theory implies that the mitochondrial ancestor was a free living facultatively aerobic alphaproteobacterium, attained by another cell and therefore giving rise to a eukaryotic cell. (Madigan, 2009 p. 520) A species of cyanobacterium is thought to be the ancestor of chloroplasts, obtained by a heterotrophic eukaryote, after eukaryotic cells had appeared around 1.5 billion years ago (Madigan, 2009 p. 520) and was obtained as an internal symbiont (Bruce Alberts, 2002). Secondary endosymbiosis refers to the event where several non-phototrophic organisms attained chloroplasts, after the primary endosymbiosis event is said to have occurred. Secondary endosymbiosis is said to have been an important factor in the evolution of eukaryotes, bringing the modern diversity of life into being (Macfadden, 2001). Features of and molecular evidence for the primary endosymbiotic theory The main point of the primary endosymbiotic theory, and which gives it its credibility, was that both mitochondria and chloroplasts both contain DNA, with rRNA, tRNA and proteins involved and needed for the respiratory chain in mitochondria and proteins needed for photosynthesis in chloroplasts, being encoded by these small genomes within mitochondria and chloroplasts. Non-phototrophic eukaryotic cells are genetic chimeras containing DNA from two different sources, the endosymbiont, which is the mitochondria, and the host cell nucleus (Madigan, 2009 p. 520). Eukaryotes which are phototrophic, for example algae and plants, have DNA from two endosymbionts, the mitochondira and the chloroplasts as well as the nuclear DNA. The majority of mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA is similar to bacterial DNA in its shape, which is circular and size. The second feature of primary endosymbiosis is that genes originating from bacteria are found in the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell. This has been proven by sequencing genomes, which have shown that nuclear genes encode properties unique to mitochondria and chloroplasts, (and also which closely resemble genes of bacteria), showing that during the evolution of the eukaryotic cell these genes where transferred to the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell, from the bacterial endosymbionts, during the development of the organelle from the engulfed cell (Madigan, 2009 p. 521). The third feature of primary endosymbiosis is that the mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own ribosomes. Ribosomes are present in eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells, with eukaryotic cells possessing the larger form, 80S, and prokaryotic cells containing the smaller, 70S, ribosomes. The mitochondria and chloroplast contain these 70S ribosomes. The fourth feature is antibiotic specificity. Mitochondria and chloroplast are sensitive to antibiotics which kill bacteria or are bacterial inhibitors. Some for example streptomycin do this by specifically interfering with the functions of the 70S ribosomes, which occurs in the same way in mitochondria and chloroplasts (Madigan, 2009 p. 521). Rifampicin is an antibiotic which in bacteria affects the RNA polymerase. It does not have this effect on eukaryotic RNA polymerase however does inhibit mitochondrial RNA polymerase. The fifth and final feature of primary endosymbiosis is that of molecular phylogeny. Phylogenetic studies comparing organelles and rRNA support the theory of mitochondria and chloroplasts deriving from bacteria. There is also other evidence in addition to what is mentioned above. Both mitochondria and chloroplast are surrounded by two membranes. It is though that the inner membrane is the original membrane which contained the prokaryotic cell and the outer membrane results from the process of endocytosis when the bacteria were taken into the eukaryotic cell. Protein synthesis in the endosymbionts begins with N- formyl methionine, the same amino acid that initiates protein synthesis in bacteria whilst in eukaryotic cells protein synthesis is initiated by methionine. Also the thylakoid membrane and the protein complexes which it contains are like those that can be found in cyanobacteria (Pyke p. 5) , and chloroplasts can divide in a way which is similar to the process of binary fission which is carried out by bacteria. This evidence all suggests that the host cell which obtained the mitochondrion by phagocytosis was an anaerobic eukaryotic cell, (which already contained a nucleus) and that the mitochondrial endosymbiont was an obligate anaerobe (Mentel, 2010). This event was later followed by the endosymbiosis of a cyanobacterium, allowing the eukaryotic cell to become photosynthetic. In this way the host eukaryotic cell attained permanent organelles which are suited to energy production. It was also mutually beneficial for the symbionts which obtained a constant and accommodating environment for their growth. Secondary endosymbiosis The primary endosymbiosis event in the common ancestor plants and in green and red algae is said to have created the modern day chloroplast. The secondary symbiotic event refers to non-phototrophic eukaryotes obtaining chloroplasts by the endocytosis of a green or red algal cell and consequently becoming phototrophic. It is thought that secondary and even further endosymbiosies lead to the diversification of eukaryotes. Problems with the endosymbiotic theory To support the endosymbiotic theory in the 1980s, Tom Cavalier-Smith proposed that certain single-celled eukaryotes which are at present still living, bear a resemblance to earlier eukaryotes, were primitively amitochondriate (Lane, 2005 p. 42),(basically eukaryotes without any mitochondria), and Cavalier-Smith named them archezoa. (He later abandoned this theory in 2002, (Cavalier-Smith, 2002)) These cells derived their energy via fermentation and prefer environments with little oxygen and were thought to be the bridge between early eukaryotic cells (as archezoa contain a nucleus) and prokaryotic cells, which would have supported the theory of a bacterial cell being phagocytised, but not digested, leading to the possession of a mitochondria in the early eukaryotic cell. It was then thought that as oxygen levels on earth started to rise, the mitochondria too, began to evolve, due to aerobic respiration being more resourceful than anaerobic respiration, which again supported that the phagocytosis of this bacterial cell was for the purpose of a more efficient way of generating energy. In March 2000, Jan and Siv Andersson proposed the Ox-Tox hypothesis to explain that aerobic respiration was the selective pressure leading to the gain of the mitochondria, originally selected for the removal of oxygen by the host cell (Andersson, 2000). This was due to research showing that the genome sequence of Rickettsia prowazekii had a strong phylogenetic relationship with mitochondrial proteins (Andersson, 2000). However in the late 1990s these hypotheses were question due to the appearance of contradictive evidence. The genomes of archezoa were sequenced and genes were found which showed that the ancestors of archezoa once had mitochondria, even though there was no physical indication of them in the cell. Some archezoa such as Giardia were found to have mitochondria but in the form of mitosomes, which still carried out mitochondrial processes (Lane, 2005 p. 47) again implying that these eukaryotes once contained mitochondria within their cells. It was then suggested that the original host in the eukaryotic merger was a methanogen, due to the structure of eukaryotic and methanogenic histones and the 3D conformation of the DNA associated with the histones being closely related (Lane, 2005 p. 48). Other problems with the endosymbiotic theory are that if a bacterium was phagocytised by a eukaryotic cell, it would definitely have been digested and neither mitochondria nor chloroplasts are able to survive independently outside of the eukaryotic cell. Chloroplasts arent the main focus when disproving the endosymbiotic theory as its thought that when the phagocytosis of a phototrophic symbiont occurred, the host cell already contained mitochondria. The alternative theories to the mainstream endosymbiotic theory The hydrogen hypothesis In 1998, William Martin and Miklà ³s Mà ¼ller proposed the hydrogen hypothesis. Unlike other hypotheses which suggested that the formation of eukaryotic cell was due to the rising oxygen levels, this hypothesis suggests that instead it was to do with hydrogen. They state that Eukaryotes are suggested to have arisen through symbiotic association of an anaerobic, strictly hydrogen dependent, strictly autotrophic archaebacterium (the host) with a eubacterium (the symbiont) that was able to respire, but generated molecular hydrogen as a waste product of anaerobic heterotrophic metabolism. (Mà ¼ller, 1998). The hydrogen hypothesis is based on hydrogenosomes which are anaerobic mitochondria, that produce ATP and with their waste products including hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide and which also are able to function in low oxygen environments. Martin and Mà ¼ller suggested that there was a methanogenic ancestry of the host (Mà ¼ller, 1998) due to methanogens needed the very products (hy drogen and carbon dioxide), which are released by hydrogenosomes and because hydrogenosomes survive in the same environment as methanogens. Due to the intimate association between the methanogen and the bacterium, the symbiosis becomes closer, due to the methanogen needing the products of respiration produced by the bacteria and it is gradually engulfed by the methanogen. By the process of lateral gene transfer from bacterium to methanogen, the methanogen is now able to carry out aerobic and anaerobic respiration (Lane, 2005). There are known examples today of bacteria which live as endosymbionts within other prokaryotes (Mentel, 2010), which again helps support this hypothesis. Another point which gives the hydrogen hypothesis credibility is that all anaerobic and aerobic mitochondria all originated from a facultatively anaerobic ancestral state (Mentel, 2010). Also according to the hydrogen hypothesis, the host cell was not required to have possessed a nucleus (Mà ¼ller, 1998). The formation of the nucleus is explained by genes for the synthesis of lipids being transferred to the host chromosome from the symbiont leading to the host synthesising these bacterial lipids and then resulting in the formation of the endoplasmic reticulum, an internal membrane system and origination of a eukaryotic nucleus (Madigan, 2009 p. 376). The effects of the hydrogen hypothesis for chloroplasts have not been considered in much depth (Allen, 2003). The syntrophy hypothesis This hypothesis was proposed by Purificacià ³n Là ³pez-Garcà ­a and David Moreira in 1999. This hypothesis is based on similar metabolic considerations as the hydrogen hypothesis proposed by Martin and Mà ¼ller (Moreira, 1999). There are some similarities between the two hypotheses. Firstly, they both maintain that the metabolic nature if the original symbiotic event involved both hydrogen and syntrophy, secondly that the hydrogen dependent autotrophic archeon must have been a methanogen (Moreira, 1999) and finally that the mosaic nature of the eukaryotic genome can be explained by lateral gene transfer and replacement over a long symbiotic life (Moreira, 1999). The difference between these hypotheses is that the syntrophy hypothesis states that the organisms involved were ÃŽÂ ´- proteobacteria, which are ancestral sulphate reducing myxobacteria, and methanogenic archaea (Moreira, 1999). The hydrogen hypothesis states that an ÃŽÂ ±-proteobacteria began the symbiosis, wherea s in the syntrophy proposal it is thought that two eubacterial types were involve, a sulphate reducing ÃŽÂ ´- proteobacteria, (which produced hydrogen for fermentation), and also an ÃŽÂ ±-proteobacterial methanotroph became symbionts and used the methane which was generated by the methanogen to produce C0à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¡. Both of these hypotheses agree that the ancestral mitochondria were of anaerobic origin (Moreira, 1999). The chimeric nature of the eukaryotic cell The hypotheses mentioned above, suggest that the modern eukaryotic cell is a chimera, which is a cell that is made up of features from both Bacteria and Archaea (Madigan, 2009 p. 376). Eukaryotes contain the same sort of lipids which are found in Bacteria and the tools they contain for transcription and translation are like those found in Archaea (Madigan, 2009 p. 376). The chimeric nature of nuclear genomes can be partially explained by the endosymbiont hypothesis of mitochondria (Hua). At some stage in eukaryogenesis, cellular and genomic combination of the two different organisms (which vary for the hydrogen and syntrophy hypothesis) happened with gene transfer from bacteria to archaea and then subsequent replacement. The bacterial genome is then thought to have condensed down and could have also dematerialised as the cell underwent evolution, (as horizontal gene transfer, which includes the introduction and loss of genes, is often seen in symbionts (Madigan, 2009 p. 377)). The de veloping eukaryotic cell must have inherited some of the archaeal-DNA processing systems, whereas the cellular metabolism systems are thought to have come from bacterial organotrophy (Hua). During its evolution the modern day eukaryotic cell has become ever more complicated and has led to the appearance of complex, multicellular life forms which are powered by mitochondria and chloroplasts in phototrophic eukaryotic cells. The progression of its evolution and how all the individual compartments of the cell occurred is expected to have taken an extensive amount of time. Variation and natural selection evidently occurred, perfecting the cell by the removal of mechanisms and cellular structures which were deemed useless, leading to biological diversity. It is still undetermined which of these hypotheses mentioned accurately describe the origin of eukaryotes and is thought that the further sequencing of genomes and phylogenetic analyses of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic genomes will provide an improved elucidation of the origin and diversity of eukaryotes.

India Risk Analysis Essay -- essays research papers

Global investors, markets, and foreign governments are often held responsible by their citizens or shareholders to ensure the potential is measured against the risks when investing. In recent years the strength of India on the global market has continued to show signs of political and economical growth that makes regions in India attractive investments by various markets. India has taken steps to recognize these opportunities to gain Foreign Direct Investment by realigning government policy towards new business potential. Such potential is often marked by â€Å"it’s too good to be true† as global investors determine the risk through in depth analysis of regions around the world and much like team A has outlined for Kerala, India. Foreign Trade and Investment Investment in India has increased significantly since the 2001 Indian Government’s approval of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) reform. In mid-year meetings of 2001, the Government liberalized the restrictions on FDI into India in select industries. The infrastructure of the Indian Government is increasingly interested and actively pursuing FDI from countries such as the United States. India is currently offering automatic business approvals for new businesses that have an initial investment of 100% foreign capital in industries that are considered tourism based. (Indian Embassy, 2001) According to the 2001 guidelines issued under section 4 (iv.), Businesses that are considered to be â€Å"commercial premises, hotels, resorts, city and regional level urban infrastructure facilities†¦Ã¢â‚¬  which qualify for up to100% FDI. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows to India amounting to US$4.06 billion were received during the financial year 2001-2002, with $2.46 billion (USD) received from the U.S. just in 2000-01 alone. This marked a 66% increase from the previous year. According to FDI Magazine, India was the number 3 recipient of FDI from January of 2002 to June of 2004. India had a total of 41 Foreign Direct Investment projects, beaten only by the United Kingdom with 53 and China with 54. FDI Magazine shares this observation: â€Å"Noticeable among the results for the second quarter is the rise of China to become the number one destination for foreign investment by number of projects. However, perhaps more significant is the increase in the number of projects heading for India, up over 77% year on year while the jobs creat... ...he World Wide Web at the University of Phoenix Library February 28, 2005:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://80-online.culturegrams.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/secure/world/world_country.php?contid=3&wmn=Asia&cid=75&cn=India No author. N.D. Retrieved from the World Wide Web February 28, 2005:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.country-studies.com/india/labor.html Singh, G. (2005, February 26). India has just 4% share of Asia media spend. Knight Ridder Tribune Business News [ProQuest]. Pg.1. University of Phoenix Online Collection. Available: http://proquest.umi.com: (2005, March 1). The Economist. Retrieved on February 27, 2005 from: http://www.economist.com/countries/India/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Political%20Forces The Economy Watch website provides current economical and financial news for most foreign entities at http://www.economywatch.com/ The International Trade Reporter website provides trade laws and regulations for most foreign entities at http://www.bna.com/itr/index.html U.S. Department of State; Kerala-Republic of India; United States Department of State, Public Domain; Accessed 18Feb2005 at: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/rls/dos/3797.htm India Risk Analysis Essay -- essays research papers Global investors, markets, and foreign governments are often held responsible by their citizens or shareholders to ensure the potential is measured against the risks when investing. In recent years the strength of India on the global market has continued to show signs of political and economical growth that makes regions in India attractive investments by various markets. India has taken steps to recognize these opportunities to gain Foreign Direct Investment by realigning government policy towards new business potential. Such potential is often marked by â€Å"it’s too good to be true† as global investors determine the risk through in depth analysis of regions around the world and much like team A has outlined for Kerala, India. Foreign Trade and Investment Investment in India has increased significantly since the 2001 Indian Government’s approval of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) reform. In mid-year meetings of 2001, the Government liberalized the restrictions on FDI into India in select industries. The infrastructure of the Indian Government is increasingly interested and actively pursuing FDI from countries such as the United States. India is currently offering automatic business approvals for new businesses that have an initial investment of 100% foreign capital in industries that are considered tourism based. (Indian Embassy, 2001) According to the 2001 guidelines issued under section 4 (iv.), Businesses that are considered to be â€Å"commercial premises, hotels, resorts, city and regional level urban infrastructure facilities†¦Ã¢â‚¬  which qualify for up to100% FDI. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) inflows to India amounting to US$4.06 billion were received during the financial year 2001-2002, with $2.46 billion (USD) received from the U.S. just in 2000-01 alone. This marked a 66% increase from the previous year. According to FDI Magazine, India was the number 3 recipient of FDI from January of 2002 to June of 2004. India had a total of 41 Foreign Direct Investment projects, beaten only by the United Kingdom with 53 and China with 54. FDI Magazine shares this observation: â€Å"Noticeable among the results for the second quarter is the rise of China to become the number one destination for foreign investment by number of projects. However, perhaps more significant is the increase in the number of projects heading for India, up over 77% year on year while the jobs creat... ...he World Wide Web at the University of Phoenix Library February 28, 2005:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://80-online.culturegrams.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/secure/world/world_country.php?contid=3&wmn=Asia&cid=75&cn=India No author. N.D. Retrieved from the World Wide Web February 28, 2005:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.country-studies.com/india/labor.html Singh, G. (2005, February 26). India has just 4% share of Asia media spend. Knight Ridder Tribune Business News [ProQuest]. Pg.1. University of Phoenix Online Collection. Available: http://proquest.umi.com: (2005, March 1). The Economist. Retrieved on February 27, 2005 from: http://www.economist.com/countries/India/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Political%20Forces The Economy Watch website provides current economical and financial news for most foreign entities at http://www.economywatch.com/ The International Trade Reporter website provides trade laws and regulations for most foreign entities at http://www.bna.com/itr/index.html U.S. Department of State; Kerala-Republic of India; United States Department of State, Public Domain; Accessed 18Feb2005 at: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/rls/dos/3797.htm

Technology in Teaching and Learning Essay -- Education Technology

Educational technologies are being utilized in every way shape and form, from inline gaming to numeracy, literacy and painting by numbers. From learning to leisure we have embraced the internet, in online chat rooms we communicate, interact and move into future learning through educational programmes and technology that lets us learn virtually. Instruction and directions are sent across cyberspace which change perceptions and give us an insight into different cultures far away across the other side of the world .The enigma that is cyberspace has the capacity to change our way of thinking, learning and teaching, and it is this teaching aspect that most interests me. As classroom based beings, teachers and the technological movement ebb slowly toward each other as interactive learners push educational boundaries into virtual reality. This assignment will attempt to show the importance of internet connections for interactive learners. As communication is the main aim of any interface, society in the main has accepted these progressive technologies and as our willingness to integrate this mechanically driven entity into our lives draws education into our very living rooms, for some though the challenge of engagement continues, especially for those with learning difference. Developing learning for students with difference has always confronted society with a dilemma; nevertheless the technological age of interactive education has increased access to learning for all those who are willing to take up the challenge. Traditional teaching methods have taken a backwards step and the cyber spaced virtual reality of online has in my view, rightfully taken its place at the classroom. In the Community Engagement Department where I teach a... ... of Inquiry into Higher Education, (NCIHE) (1997) Dearing, R. Higher Education in the Learning Society. Report of the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education. London: NCIHE Publications (HMSO). Ehrich, R, W., Reaux, R, A., (1998) PCs for families: a study of early intervention using networked computing in education, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 19(4), p.383-410. Stefani, L., Nicol, D., (1997) From teacher to facilitator of collaborative enquiry, in: Armstrong, S., Thompson, G., and Brown, S., (Eds) Facing up to Radical Changes in Universities and Colleges London: Kogan. Tapscott, D. (1998). Growing up digital: The rise of the net generation. New York: McGraw-Hill.(p.16) York, M. (2003) Formative assessment in Higher Education: moves towards theory and the enhancement of pedagogic practice, Higher Education, 45(4), pp.477-501.

Classification Essay - Good Books and Great Books -- Classification Es

The Difference Between Good Books and Great Books Reading is fundamental, but some books are more so than others. Surely Daniel Steele is a far cry from William Shakespeare, but what exactly is the difference? Even in the realm of quality literature there are still "good" books and "great" books. The difference between the importance of good and great books is also why it is so important to read great literature: Great books have a scope much larger than good ones. Good and great books differ by nature, not by degree. A good book is not almost a great one; a great book is a totally different creature than a good book. What makes them different is how much they pertain to the human experience. A good book may have one very important meaning, but it is a meaning that only pertains to the time in which it was written. Across the river though, a great book has many meanings. Great books also involve deeper issues, issues that are and always were part of the human experience. A good book only needs to be read once, but to realize all the different meanings of...

Reflectionpaper Instruction

Reflection Paper Instructions For this assignment, you should compose a 3-page double-spaced paper that addresses how the principles that you have learned throughout this course have changed your understanding of what it means to be a Christian. You will submit your first paper in Module/Week 4 and your second paper is Module/Week 8. You should follow the format of Praxis: Beyond Theory when completing your papers. The format is: 1. An explanation of the topic/doctrine 2. Scriptural basis for the doctrine 3.Practical application of the doctrine to the life of the student NOTE: Students should write on topics which are not specifically addressed in the Praxis: Beyond Theory text. As you respond to the prompt, reflect on the concepts that you have learned throughout the course, and apply them to your specific topic. Be sure to integrate the information that you learned through the textbook readings, the assigned article readings, the lecture videos, and any other related content that y ou may have encountered during the course. Your paper should also: 1.Describe the course concepts that are related to your topic, demonstrating your reflection and analysis. Do not simply summarize what was presented in class. 2. Demonstrate real ownership of the ideas that you present by providing unique insight as evidence of your careful consideration of the topic. 3. Provide a logical link between the description of the concepts from the course, and the conclusions or implications that you draw in your reflection. In other words, your conclusion should be logically derived from the application of the course concepts to the description of your topic. . Demonstrate learning initiative by exploring conclusions and implications beyond the boundaries of our classroom discussion. 5. Focus on depth of understanding, rather than breadth of coverage. Format your paper in a MS Word document with 12 point, Times New Roman font and one-inch margins. Review the Reflection Paper Grading Rubri c to see the specific grading criteria by which you will be evaluated before submitting your paper. Structure your paper in the following format (inserting the headings within the paper): I.Introduction (one paragraph introducing the two topics/doctrines that you will address) II. Part One (first topic: approximately one page in length) a. Theological Definition b. Biblical Foundation c. Practical application III. Part Two (second topic: approximately one page in length) a. Theological Definition b. Biblical Foundation c. Practical Application IV. Conclusion (one paragraph summarizing your areas of progression in Christian thought) V. Grading Rubric (this must be copied and pasted into the end of your paper)